Abstract

The bovine placenta is a dynamic and multifunctional organ that regulates nutrient transfer, endocrine regulation and fetal growth throughout the pregnancy. Its performance is mainly influenced by maternal nutrition, metabolic status and environmental stressors, which shape placental structure and its efficiency. This review illustrates recent molecular insights with nutritional and physiological mechanisms to advocate how nutrient transport systems, including glucose, amino acids and fatty acid are regulated in response to maternal signals. Advancements in single-cell RNA sequencing and proteomics have revealed the specialized trophoblast subpopulations and signaling networks that govern angiogenesis, immune tolerance and metabolic adaptation. Furthermore, the role of mTOR, oxidative stress pathways and fetal sex-specific gene expression patterns is explored to explain placental efficiency under varying gestational conditions. Translational perspectives emphasize targeted nutritional interventions such as rumen bypass amino acids, omega-3 fatty acids and nanotechnology-based delivery systems as emerging strategies to optimize placental vascular function and fetal development. Collectively, this review highlights the potential of molecular nutritional approaches to enhance reproductive efficiency and promote sustainable dairy production.